Most, if not all, e-government strategies and implementation plans in developing countries have been based on theories and experiences of developed countries (Huang, D’Ambra, & Bhalla, 2002). Feeling the pressure and demand from citizens to provide e-government services online, many developing countries have no choice but to hastily jump into the e-government implementation wagon by following e-government development strategies proposed and carried out by developed countries. However, due to substantial differences in many key aspects of e-government related technological and social conditions between developed and developing countries, e-government development strategies and experiences from developed countries may not be directly applicable to developing countries. Even in developed countries, about 20-25% of egovernment projects are either never implemented or abandoned immediately after implementation, and a further 33% fail partially in terms of falling short of major goals, causing significant undesirable outcomes or both (Heeks, 2000).
The Center for International Development at Harvard University, USA, supported by IBM, identified four key factors describing differences between developing and developed countries in terms of implementing e-commerce (Kirkman, Osorio, & Sachs, 2002). These four factors are adapted to study e-government in this research, which are termed as National E-Government Infrastructure (NeI) factors.
Nel Factor 1: Network Access
Network access is measured by the availability, cost, and quality of information and communication technology (ICTs) networks, services, and equipment. More specifically, it includes the following key elements:
Infrastructure Development. Infrastructure development is a necessity before countries can consider any large projects dedicated to e-government. Citizens must have access to services before any of the cost saving benefits will apply. Also, with a lack of back-end infrastructure, governments and their employees will be unable to move into a transactional process and further stages of e-government implementation.
Resources and IT Support. Outsourcing can be an option for countries to implement e-government. The private sector has an obligation to support governments throughout the world in their dedication to e-government. Developing countries need financial discounts and support from the private sector to successfully develop applications due to their lack of resources and staff.
Utilization. The citizen utilization of the Internet is based on the access to the Internet and the Web site. Technical support must provide 24/7 access in addition to providing a better infrastructure so that more citizens can utilize the Internet. Much like in developed countries, citizen utilization is an important part of the cost savings for countries.
Nel Factor 2: Network Learning
Network learning concerns two key issues:
(1) Does an educational system integrate ICTs into its processes to improve learning? and
(2) Are there technical training programs in the community that can train and prepare an ICT workforce? Technical staffing and training is a major issue in e-government implementation. In developing countries, the problems lie in the lack of financial resources to hire full–time, in-house support and in the inability to find such support due to the lack of education in these countries. Outsourcing is an alternative; however, affordable and competent companies may not be available. Even if a country can find the finances to support an outsourcing project, stability and maintenance of the application are often difficult.
Nel Factor 3: Network Economy
Network economy concerns how businesses and governments use information and communication technologies to interact with the public and with each other. Key issues involved include collaboration,
partnership, public-private sector partnership, e-community creation, and so forth. Boundary removal between different agencies in a government is a major issue in egovernment. In many developing countries,
government structure is undefined and destabilized by corruption and communism. Consequently, boundary removal and department collaboration is a difficult and slow process. In many countries, war and terrorism is a constant issue that disrupts government operations on a daily basis. Government departments must collaborate with each other, with private sectors, and with related communities in order for e-government to be implemented in an efficient way. Due to the low computer literacy and high cost of online access,
long and unnecessary transactions need to be cut down in processes to allow users to quickly access documents and print them or fill them out online.
Nel Factor 4: Network Policy
Network policy concerns the extent that the policy environment promotes or hinders the growth of ICT adoption and use. Some related key issues include legislations, laws, strategies (visions and missions), accountability, and so forth. Government agencies and departments must be accountable for their information and processes they support. It is essential for processes and duties to be segregated and
responsibilities to be assigned to appropriate agencies and departments. These agencies and departments then need to work together to design their Web pages and IT flows. After implementation, they must have the abilities and be held accountable to support the Web pages and troubleshoot them. Governments must also be accountable for their financial and accounting systems.
Many developing countries have issues and economic problems due to their lack of reliable accounting systems. Culture and Society Factors E-Commerce largely deals with business transactions in private sector whereas e-government deals with services in the public sector. Due to key differences between private and public sectors (e.g., Bozeman & Bretschneider, 1986; Caudle, Gorr, & Newcomer, 1991; Rainey, Backoff, & Levine, 1976), factors other than the ones identified by the previouslymentioned Harvard University e-commerce research project may also be important to e-government strategies and implementations. Prior relevant research suggested some key factors for e-government strategies and implementations, which can be used to identify differences in e-government between developed and developing countries. Those suggested factors include society factors like history, citizens (Huang, ’Ambra, & Bhalla, 2002), government staff and governance (Wimmer, Traunmuller, & Lenk, 2001), organizational structure (Baligh, 1994); and cultural factors like national culture (Hoftstede, 1980, 1991), organizational culture (Hoftstede, 1980; Schein, 1993), and social norms (Ajzen, 1988). Other than those suggested by literature, society factors like politics and information availability should also be considered. Developing countries are often less democratized with underdeveloped press communication resulting in unbalanced and deficient information availability. These politics and information factors have significant impact on the speed of infrastructure establishment in developing countries, thus should be considered in creating e-government strategies.
Based upon the earlier literature review and discussion, a research framework incorporating critical success factors (CSFs) which influence e-government strategies and implementations is proposed. Some CSFs identified in the proposed framework could be more important to developed countries than to developing countries, or vice versa. The framework can also be used to assess and guide the strategic development of e-government implementation in developed and developing countries.
The Center for International Development at Harvard University, USA, supported by IBM, identified four key factors describing differences between developing and developed countries in terms of implementing e-commerce (Kirkman, Osorio, & Sachs, 2002). These four factors are adapted to study e-government in this research, which are termed as National E-Government Infrastructure (NeI) factors.
Nel Factor 1: Network Access
Network access is measured by the availability, cost, and quality of information and communication technology (ICTs) networks, services, and equipment. More specifically, it includes the following key elements:
Infrastructure Development. Infrastructure development is a necessity before countries can consider any large projects dedicated to e-government. Citizens must have access to services before any of the cost saving benefits will apply. Also, with a lack of back-end infrastructure, governments and their employees will be unable to move into a transactional process and further stages of e-government implementation.
Resources and IT Support. Outsourcing can be an option for countries to implement e-government. The private sector has an obligation to support governments throughout the world in their dedication to e-government. Developing countries need financial discounts and support from the private sector to successfully develop applications due to their lack of resources and staff.
Utilization. The citizen utilization of the Internet is based on the access to the Internet and the Web site. Technical support must provide 24/7 access in addition to providing a better infrastructure so that more citizens can utilize the Internet. Much like in developed countries, citizen utilization is an important part of the cost savings for countries.
Nel Factor 2: Network Learning
Network learning concerns two key issues:
(1) Does an educational system integrate ICTs into its processes to improve learning? and
(2) Are there technical training programs in the community that can train and prepare an ICT workforce? Technical staffing and training is a major issue in e-government implementation. In developing countries, the problems lie in the lack of financial resources to hire full–time, in-house support and in the inability to find such support due to the lack of education in these countries. Outsourcing is an alternative; however, affordable and competent companies may not be available. Even if a country can find the finances to support an outsourcing project, stability and maintenance of the application are often difficult.
Nel Factor 3: Network Economy
Network economy concerns how businesses and governments use information and communication technologies to interact with the public and with each other. Key issues involved include collaboration,
partnership, public-private sector partnership, e-community creation, and so forth. Boundary removal between different agencies in a government is a major issue in egovernment. In many developing countries,
government structure is undefined and destabilized by corruption and communism. Consequently, boundary removal and department collaboration is a difficult and slow process. In many countries, war and terrorism is a constant issue that disrupts government operations on a daily basis. Government departments must collaborate with each other, with private sectors, and with related communities in order for e-government to be implemented in an efficient way. Due to the low computer literacy and high cost of online access,
long and unnecessary transactions need to be cut down in processes to allow users to quickly access documents and print them or fill them out online.
Nel Factor 4: Network Policy
Network policy concerns the extent that the policy environment promotes or hinders the growth of ICT adoption and use. Some related key issues include legislations, laws, strategies (visions and missions), accountability, and so forth. Government agencies and departments must be accountable for their information and processes they support. It is essential for processes and duties to be segregated and
responsibilities to be assigned to appropriate agencies and departments. These agencies and departments then need to work together to design their Web pages and IT flows. After implementation, they must have the abilities and be held accountable to support the Web pages and troubleshoot them. Governments must also be accountable for their financial and accounting systems.
Many developing countries have issues and economic problems due to their lack of reliable accounting systems. Culture and Society Factors E-Commerce largely deals with business transactions in private sector whereas e-government deals with services in the public sector. Due to key differences between private and public sectors (e.g., Bozeman & Bretschneider, 1986; Caudle, Gorr, & Newcomer, 1991; Rainey, Backoff, & Levine, 1976), factors other than the ones identified by the previouslymentioned Harvard University e-commerce research project may also be important to e-government strategies and implementations. Prior relevant research suggested some key factors for e-government strategies and implementations, which can be used to identify differences in e-government between developed and developing countries. Those suggested factors include society factors like history, citizens (Huang, ’Ambra, & Bhalla, 2002), government staff and governance (Wimmer, Traunmuller, & Lenk, 2001), organizational structure (Baligh, 1994); and cultural factors like national culture (Hoftstede, 1980, 1991), organizational culture (Hoftstede, 1980; Schein, 1993), and social norms (Ajzen, 1988). Other than those suggested by literature, society factors like politics and information availability should also be considered. Developing countries are often less democratized with underdeveloped press communication resulting in unbalanced and deficient information availability. These politics and information factors have significant impact on the speed of infrastructure establishment in developing countries, thus should be considered in creating e-government strategies.
Based upon the earlier literature review and discussion, a research framework incorporating critical success factors (CSFs) which influence e-government strategies and implementations is proposed. Some CSFs identified in the proposed framework could be more important to developed countries than to developing countries, or vice versa. The framework can also be used to assess and guide the strategic development of e-government implementation in developed and developing countries.